The impact of animation interactivity on novices' learning of introductory statistics

knowledge acquisition Constructivism also contributes to this theoretical framework for interactive animation use. Constructivist theorist Spiro divided knowledge into two different types: Well-structured and ill-structured (Spiro & Jehng, 1990). He then offered theories of learning that emphasized the need to treat ill-structured knowledge domains differently from well-structured domains. Well-structured knowledge items and ill-structured 15 knowledge items exist in every subject. Instructors must distinguish between them in instructional design to enhance better knowledge acquisition for their students. The differences between well-structured knowledge and ill-structured knowledge are discussed below. Well-structured knowledge refers to simple and fundamental knowledge with clear rules or principles. Strategies to deliver well-structured knowledge include textbooks, lectures or tutorials. Taking statistics as an example, the calculation of the mean, standard deviation and t-value could be considered well-structured knowledge since they have very clear procedures and rules. Ill-structured knowledge, or abstract knowledge, refers to complex knowledge which has no regular principles. Ill-structured knowledge items have the following two characteristics: 1) Knowledge application requires the interaction among multiple mental models, and 2) knowledge item has cross-case differences. Strategies to deliver illstructured items include problem-based learning, self-learning or discovery-learning. Again taking statistics for an example, the interpretation or evaluation of an experimental design is an ill-structured knowledge item since there are many factors related to the experimental design, including sample size, effect size, alpha level and practical significance. Sometimes “experiences” help learners to interpret such statistical data instead of rules. It is comparatively difficult for teachers to deliver ill-structured knowledge since it has higher complexity and flexibility. Many educational researchers have conducted studies looking for a good strategy to make learning ill-structured knowledge efficient. Currently, Spiro’s “cognitive flexibility theory” is dominant. Cognitive flexibility theory suggests the following solutions for teachers to better deal with ill-structured knowledge items: 1) Multiple representations, 2) revisiting the materials, 3) schema assembly, and 4)